He choose his younger brother Valens, entrusting him with the administration of the eastern half of the empire. They jointly announced their retirement in May 305. Although collective ovations for dignitaries were still regularly commemorated in public places, in this period they were made mainly in honor of imperial officials instead of local leaders as it had been common in the previous centuries. Ammianus Marcellinus (occasionally anglicised as Ammian) (born c. 330, died c. 391 - 400) was a Roman soldier and historian who wrote the penultimate major historical account surviving from antiquity (preceding Procopius).His work, known as the Res Gestae, chronicled in Latin the history of Rome from the accession of the Emperor Nerva in 96 to the death of Valens at the Battle of Adrianople . The pagan panegyrist Themistius praised his religious policy for encouraging competition among people of diverse religious background. For instance, after the 348 earthquake in Beirut pagans started praying in the Christian church, but they did not abandon all their pagan customs. Little is known of his life, except that he was probably born to a Greek-speaking family in Antioch, between 325 and 330. [134], A passionate convert to Christianity, ConstantineI used harsh words when mentioning the pagans, but his legislation reflects a reconciliatory approach. He also criticized the emperors for interfering in what was originally a plain and simple religion by embroiling Christians in discussion about dogma rather than seriously trying to make them agree they caused controversy.[34]. His general Gerontius mutinied and acclaimed a certain Maximus emperor. [1][2] HagiographiesChristian martyrs' and ascetics' biographiesform the period's most distinctive literary genre. The Late Roman World and its Historian. Both legal compilations are important sources of state administration, although their actual application is unproven. When writing of events familiar to them or their acquaintances, they are mostly reliable. Prisoners and defeated enemies were regularly recruited, and volunteers, both Romans and foreigners, also served in the army. The Roman Empire of Ammianus. [77] Anti-Gothic sentiments endured in Constantinople: Fravitta was executed and the Gothic military commanders were replaced by Armenians, Persians and Isaurians. In late 406, masses of Vandals, Alans, Suebi and other peoples stormed into Western Roman territory across the Rhine. The Survival of Eastern Empire is written by Stephen Williams. The way in which Ammianus wrestled with the questions of objectivity, the way in which he used he drew on own presence at events to construct history while aware of political consequences of what he wrote, remain of considerable interest. . He almost certainly regarded history as a tool to help understand the past in order to shape the present and to influence the future. Ammianus Marcellinus, ca. This is where youll see your current point status and your earned rewards. [189] Priscillian, a Hispanian lay ascetic, who rejected marriage and promoted vegetarianism, was an early example. The Code of Theodosius determined two major social classes, distinguishing the honestiores ("upper class") from the humiliores ("lower class"). The Visigoths inflicted humiliating defeats on the Vandals and Alans, and Constantius allowed them to settle in Gallia Aquitania. In 293, Diocletian instituted a tetrarchyfour co-emperors' joint ruleby appointing two Illyrian officers Constantius Chlorus and Galerius as Caesars. . The Later Roman Empire chronicles a period of twenty-five years during Marcellinus' own lifetime, covering the reigns of Constantius, Julian, Jovian, Valentinian I, and Valens, and providing eyewitness accounts of significant military events including the Battle of Strasbourg and . 17 Books That Show Kids What It Means to Be Thankful, Browse All Our Lists, Essays, and Interviews, Fascinating Biographies and Memoirs About the Royal Family. His is the last major historical account of the late Roman Empire which survives today. It makes a valuable contribution to the field of late antique studies and of Ammianus in particular by focusing on the literary aspects of the historian's text. Pagan inscriptions were rare in the 4thcentury with the prominent exception of Rome, but it may have been the consequence of the transformation of practices of commemoration. We are experiencing technical difficulties. The Later Roman Empire chronicles a period of twenty-five years during Marcellinus' own lifetime, covering the reigns. [19], Archaeological finds also abound, although "they remain understudied" (as Mitchell emphasizes it in 2015). Less centered on Rome than Tacitus had been, he painted on a wider canvass with allusions to China, descriptions of the Huns, a relatively sympathetic account of the Persians and other digressions from the his main historical time-line. Valentinian survived, only to die of stroke after a heated encounter with Quadian envoys in the Pannonian Brigetio in 376. For most of the first five centuries ad, they ruled the parts of north-western Europe where medieval civilisation would later flourish. In a year, an anti-Gothic popular riot broke out in Constantinople and Arcadius dismissed Gainas with the support of an other Gothic general Fravitta. after 390) was a native Greek speaker who served in the Roman army and in about 390 completed the Res gestae, a Latin history in thirty-one books from Nerva to Valens (the years 96 to 378 CE).The eighteen surviving books cover his own times, from 353 to 378, and fall naturally into three "hexads" or groups of six books. ISBN links support NWE through referral fees. Even, the Chronicon Paschale is of the upmost importance for the study of the otherwise poorly documented early 7thcentury. Diocletian and Galerius established a new tetrarchy recognizing Galerius and his protg Licinius as Augusti, and Maximinus and Constantine as Caesares, but Maximian, Constantine and Maxentius did not accept their decision. Diocletian replaced the old system with a new hierarchy of imperial officials and made the senatorial rank available to all who held high offices in imperial administration. Share to Twitter. Early in 383 he proclaimed his six-year-old elder son Arcadius his co-emperor. In retaliation for their attack on Christians during Easter, their temple was transformed into a Christian church. A new high-ranking official, the magister officiorum, was first mentioned in 320. He re-unified the Roman Empire, but he died on 17January 395. [147], Festivities were the most lasting elements of pagan cults. He concluded a peace treaty with the Vandals, acknowledging their hold of the western regions of Roman Africa in 435. ), Encyclopaedia Iranica I/9 . Around 531 he banned all who had not received the orthodox/nicean baptism from teaching and serving in state administration. on the Internet. He forbade the branding of slaves on the forehead, abolished penalties for celibacy, and offered financial support to poor parents to discourage infanticide. They defeated Bonifatius who was the military commander of Roman Africa and captured Hippo Regius in Numidia. Aetius fled to the Huns and hired Hunnic mercenaries. [33], The mid-3rdcentury saw a period of cooling and drought, well documented in many regions. The regional units usually wintered at Trier, Sirmium, Marcianopolis and Antioch. The local deities were associated with the gods of the Roman pantheon, but elements of the local cults survived. They paid taxes and raised troops in return for protection against the "howling people" surrounding the Roman Empire, but the emperors were not always able to meet their expectations. Share to Reddit. With Ursicinus he went twice to the East, and barely escaped with his life from Amida (modern Diyarbakr), when it was taken by the Sassanid king Shapur II. [46], After recovering from a serious illness Diocletian concluded that he and Maximian had ruled long enough. In comparison, the central administration employed less than a thousand full-time bureaucrats during the reign of the first emperors. daci1234 [1] Ting Dacia l mt ngn ng n-u tuyt chng, tng c ni ti khu vc dy ni Karpat trong khong thi gian t khong 3000-1500 TCN. 1999. Typically born into families of long military tradition, the "barracks emperors" were mainly extremely conservatives, but they did not hesitate to overturn traditional principles of state administration for practical considerations. [53][54] Constantine developed a system of client states along the Danube and Rhine taking advantage of the neighboring tribes' dependence on commerce with the empire. 1 Ammianus' narrative on the siege of Amida (XIX, 1-9) takes up more space, but covers a period of 74 ; 1 One of the best known passages of Ammianus Marcellinus' fourth century history is his account of the battle of Argentoratum (Strasbourg) in 357, where the newly appointed Caesar Julian led his Gallic army to a definitive victory over the Alamanni under king Chnodomar and his allies . Delphi's Ancient Classics series provides eReaders with the wisdom of the Classical world, with both English translations and the . They were known as Donatists for their bishop of Carthage, Donatus Magnus. His son-in-law Sebastianus succeeded him as supreme commander. The legend of Maximilian of Tebessa, an early conscientious objector indicates that the number of Christian troops was not insignificant around 295. Peter Brown, The World of Late Antiquity AD 150-750 Stephen Mitchell, A History of the Later Roman Empire, AD 284-641: the . . [42] The tetrarchs repelled pillaging raids by the neighboring tribes and launched offensive campaigns against them. Bans on pagan sacrifices were regularly repeated in the 5thcentury, indicating that they were ineffectual. The reorganization of the army established a more flexible command structure and diminished the dependence of the frontier troops on the imperial field army in case of emergency. Routledge . He is much more sympathetic than other Roman writers in describing the Persians, where there is an echo of Herodotus in his writing. Cassius' words obviously reflect the Roman senators' aversion to the Severan emperors, because other written sources and archaeological evidence indicate that the empire recovered during their reign between 193 and 235. The new imperial aristocracy was based on office-holding instead of inherited wealth and family connections. The later Roman Empire (A.D. 354-378) Item Preview remove-circle Share or Embed This Item. on September 5, 2008, There are no reviews yet. Book 25 describes Julians death in 363. [182], The Samaritans, who were related to the Jews, lived in Palestine and they made sacrifices in their temple on Mount Gerizim. Two rabbinical commentaries on the Torah, the Mishnah and the Talmud, developed into the most important source of Jewish community life in Late Antiquity. [28][29] The central government's instability reaffirmed secessionist movements in the periphery. The asylum seekers were settled in Thrace, but avaricious provincial officials enslaved many of them in return for low quality food staff. After a Persian invasion of Mesopotamia, Constantius hurried to the east. The sole surviving manuscript from which almost every other is derived is a ninth century Carolingian text, V, produced in Fulda from an insular exemplar. He wrote thirty-one books (of which only thirteen survive). [164] Donatism survived and the separate hierarchy of Donatist clergy endured for more than a century. He death has been dated as between 391 and 395. Search the history of over 778 billion Ammianus Marcellinus, ca. His edits ordered the destruction of Christian churches and literature and the confiscation of church property. [15] Ammianus was aware that writing about contemporary, including events to which he was a witness, raised questions about impartiality. For Arius and his supporters, known as Arians, did not accept the Nicene Creed, Constantine exiled them. Ammianus Marcellinus' information and knowledge of the Sasanian Persians is often criticised for being stereotypical and reliant on traditional tropes and ideas. Chaumont, M. L., Ammianus Marcellinus. Inscriptions hailed Julian as "restorer of liberty and the Roman religion". He subsequently settled in Rome, where he wrote in Latin a . The systematic study of archaeological evidence intensified after the dating system of Late Roman pottery stabilized. 18 and 19 turn to Persia where Constantius was now fighting against Shapur II (310-379). After Julians death, he took part in the retreat of Jovian as far as Antioch, where he was residing when the conspiracy of Theodorus (371) was discovered and cruelly put down. [167] Their banishment did not heal the schism, and the Arian exiles were allowed to return, while the most prominent anti-Arian bishops Athanasius of Alexandria and Marcellus of Ancyra were exiled. [122] Emperors routinely commemorated their victories over the barbarian tribes on inscriptions and coins. New border fortresses were built along the Danube and a selective settlement program was introduced, allowing some Carpians to move from their north-Danubian homeland to Pannonia and Moesia. As you may notice from the title, it only covers about a quarter of the century, and it spends a lot of time on Julian. [37], With Gallienus' successor, Claudius Gothicus the military aristocracy of the Roman provinces on the Middle Danube took control of the Roman state. [143] There is evidence that pagans had taken part in citywide struggles both for and against Athanasius of Alexandria in 341 and 356. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here: The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia: Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed. [76] Before the end of 395, the Huns launched a plundering raid against the Eastern Roman Empire from the east, and a Gothic commander in Roman service, Gainas murdered Rufinus. After retiring from a successful military career, he wrote a history of the Roman Empire as a sequel to that of Tacitus, his model. From these references, it has been deduced that he was born probably between 325 and 330 to an educated family of Greek descent, possibly in Antioch[3] This probability hinges on whether he was the recipient of a surviving letter to a Marcellinus from a contemporary, Libanius. The recorded Pictish history begins in the early Middle Ages. He was not a professional man of letters but an army officer of Greek origin born at Antioch and contemporary with the events described in what remains of his work. [71] In 387 Theodosius concluded a peace treaty with the new Sassanian king Shapur III. Theodosius ordered the appointment of Nicene bishops to all eastern sees. [115] The maintenance of two separate hierarchies of equestrian and senatorial offices became obsolete by the end of the 3rdcentury. They divided Armenia. Ancient authors: Ammianus Marcellinus (late fourth century CE), Roman Antiquities / Res Gestae 14.2 (link to Latin text and full translation). Some of their followers lived a solitary life, others assembled at least once a week for a communal meal or prayer. His order about the sprinkling of foods with water used by pagan priests during sacrifices was particularly provocative for Christians. Jordanes (fl.c.550 CE): History of the Goths Chap. [15], The systematic collection of legal texts commenced in the Late Roman period. With more than 1,700titles, Penguin Classics represents a global bookshelf of the best works throughout history and across genres and disciplines. Version 1. He died fighting the Persians on 26June 363. [129][130], The cities were the centres of the pagan cults all over the Roman empire. His digressions on the various countries he had visited are particularly interesting. [154] Lactantius blames the haruspicespagan priests practicing divinationfor arousing Diocletian's anger against the Christians, and Galerius and his fanatically pagan mother for convincing him to take drastic measures. [23][106] Access to the emperors was increasingly controlled by new court officials. Maximus withdrew to Hispania and Constantius captured Constantine at Arles. With the regular appointment of five praetorian prefects, each ruling a well defined group of dioceses, new territorial administrative units, known as praetorian prefectures, came into being during his reign. He died in prison in the Sassanian Empire, but his disciples spread his teaching and established Manichaean communities all over the Roman Empire. He banned gladiator games and promoted the less violent chariot racing. Portraying a time of rapid and dramatic change, Marcellinus describes an Empire exhausted by excessive taxation, corruption, the financial ruin of the middle classes and the progressive decline in the morale of the army. The remaining books covering the period from 353 to 378, are important for the history of the Sasanian empire in the 4th century. Ammianus Marcellinus (b. c. 330d. The Later Roman Empire chronicles a period of twenty-five years during Marcellinus' own lifetime, covering the reigns of Constantius, Julian, Jovian, Valentinian I, and Valens, and providing eyewitness accounts of significant military events including the Battle of Strasbourg and . [65], Julian's successor, a Christian military commander Jovian abandoned Roman territories in Mesopotamia and acknowledged Persian protectorate over Armenia in return for a thirty-year peace. In comparison with previous periods, studies on Later Roman history are based on diverse but mainly biased written sources. By clicking Sign Up, I acknowledge that I have read and agree to Penguin Random House's Privacy Policy and Terms of Use and understand that Penguin Random House collects certain categories of personal information for the purposes listed in that policy, discloses, sells, or shares certain personal information and retains personal information in accordance with the policy. [44], The systematic codification of Roman law began with the Gregorian Codea collection of imperial rulingsin 292. [68][69] Facing the new military crisis, Gratian reactivated a previously dismissed Hispanian general Theodosius, and appointed him as his co-emperor in January 379. Ammianus Marcellinus was a fourth-century Roman historian and his work the "Res Gestae", known in English as "The Later Roman Empire", is one of the most important historical accounts to have survived from ancient Rome. [10][11] Scholars studying 5th-century Roman history can primarily rely on a 10th-century collection of fragments from earlier Greek authors' works. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. [140], The transformation of Roman religious life in Late Antiquity is poorly documented. Jovian adopted a moderate approach and only repeated bans on magical practices. In the west, the new tribal confederations of the Franks, Alemanni, Sarmatians and Goths made regular incursions deep into Roman territory. Only three church historians' works survived from the 6thcentury: Zacharias Rhetor, John of Ephesus and Evagrius Scholasticus focus on theological debates. The Later Roman Empire chronicles a period of twenty-five years during Marcellinus' own lifetime, covering the reigns of Constantius, Julian, Jovian, Valentinian I, and Valens, and providing eyewitness accounts of significant military events including the Battle of Strasbourg and . He ordered Julian to send reinforcements but the Gallic troops revolted and proclaimed Julian Augustus. The Roman History of Ammianus Marcellinus by Ammianus Marcellinus. [78], Likely the Eastern Romans' hostility to the Goths persuaded Alaric to search a new homeland in northern Italy, but Stilicho routed him at Pollentia on Easter Day 402. By clicking SIGN UP,I acknowledge that I have read and agree to Penguin Random Houses, Books To Celebrate Lunar New Year for Any Age, Editor's Picks: Science Fiction & Fantasy, The Best Books to Get Your Finances in Order, Cook a Soul Food Holiday Meal With Rosie Mayes, certain categories of personal information, discloses, sells, or shares certain personal information. Uploaded by Buy. p. xxiv. A Roman historian chronicles Rome on the brink of collapseAmmianus Marcellinus was the last great Roman historian, and his writings rank alongside those of Livy and Tacitus. This page was last edited on 17 May 2021, at 15:34. With his History against the Pagans, he wanted to demonstrate that recent calamities cannot be regarded as a punishment for the suppression of traditional Roman religion. He was born about A.D. 330 in Syrian Antioch, of a good Greek family, 1 and probably received his early education in his native city. Both breakaway states were destroyed by Emperor Aurelian in the 270s. National Library of Russia, Codex Syriac 1, German and Sarmatian campaigns of Constantine, Byzantine Empire under the Constantinian and Valentinianic dynasties, Byzantine Empire under the Theodosian dynasty, Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire, The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Later_Roman_Empire&oldid=1134074468, This page was last edited on 16 January 2023, at 22:15. 325-ca. His "New Rome" was consecrated as Constantinople on 11May 330. Ammianus includes some autobiographical references in his Book of Deeds (Rerum Gestarum Libri, or Res Gestae Libri). Ammianus Marcellinus is often considered to be the last Roman historian of any merit. Ideas about a single supreme god who governs the universe were widespread. The tetrarchs' involvement in the process is not documented, but it was consistent with their attempt to stabilize the empire. [25], The last Severan emperor, Severus Alexander was assassinated by his own troops in 235. Public opinion endorsed cruelty when dealing with the enemy and prisoners of war were customarily thrown to the beasts in gladiator shows. Aetius regularly hired them to fight against the Burgundians, Visigoths and the rebellious Bagaudae of Gaul. [187] Manichaeism was a dualistic religion: its adherents distinguished a good and an evil god, and blamed the evil god for the creation of the material world. The Visigoths left Italy and joined the coalition supporting Jovinus in Gaul, but after Honorius promised grain supplies to them, Athaulf captured and beheaded Jovinus. web pages Most Christian intellectuals embraced a modified version of Rome's imperialist ideology, claiming that God destined the empire to facilitate the spread of Christianity for the salvation of all mankind. 7, 4, etc. The later Roman Empire (A.D. 354-378). Inflation increased the significance of taxes in kind, particularly the annona militaristhe compulsory grain supply to the armyand the angareiathe mandatory military transport. 5. While classical culture claimed that only the wealthy could live a truly civilized life, hagiographies praised uneducated ascetics who abandoned civilisation for the desert. Under the new system, civil and military hierarchies were separated. TheodosiusI renewed their persecution, describing them as followers of a sect who meet in "nefarious retreats and wicked recesses". [174], Valens appointed the moderate Arian Demophilus to the see of Constantinople, but the western bishops insisted on the Nicene doctrine. After a fierce conflict with her half-brother the widowed Galla Placidia fled to Constantinople. Roman citizens could approach the emperor directly for seeking his opinion on specific points of law. By hiring foreign troops, Stilicho had lost the native officers' confidence and he was murdered by plotters in Ravenna in August. [123], The making of strategic decisions was the emperor's monopoly, but in many cases he was far away from military emergency. Constantine invaded Italy and defeated Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge near the city of Rome in 312. *Estimated delivery dates - opens in a new window or tab include seller's handling time, origin ZIP Code, destination ZIP Code and time of acceptance and will depend on shipping service selected and receipt of cleared payment. [168] On his death bed, Constantine received baptism from an Arian bishop, Eusebius of Nicomedia. Traditional imperial titulature was expanded with titles like dominus ("lord"), and Jovius or Herculius (in reference to the gods Jupiter and Hercules, respectively). 2. His report describes accurately the characteristic sequence of earthquake, retreat of the sea and sudden giant wave. Theodosius could pacify the Goths only through an unprecedented compromise in 382. of Constantius, Julian, Jovian, Valentinian I, and Valens, and providing eyewitness accounts of significant military events including the Battle of Strasbourg and the Goth's Revolt. The emperors were accompanied by elite troops, including 10cohorts of praetorians and a cavalry unit known as equites singulares. [38][39], The Illyrian Diocletian was a genuine representative of the soldier emperor's reformist zeal. If you need a custom essay or research paper on this topic please use our . He led the Vandals and Alans across the Strait of Gibraltar into northern Africa. Book 20 returns to his focus on Ursicinus, describing what Ammianus sees as his unfair dismissal and Constantius attempt to remove Julian from his post in Gaul, which resulted in the troops hailing Julian as emperor (360). Against them where there is an echo of Herodotus in his Book of Deeds ( Rerum Gestarum,. More than a century as `` restorer of liberty and the Roman Empire, but was... Otherwise poorly documented ( of which only thirteen survive ) Chronicon Paschale is the... Repelled pillaging raids by the neighboring tribes and launched offensive campaigns against.. A peace treaty with the Vandals, Alans, Suebi and other peoples stormed into Roman. Historical account ammianus marcellinus the later roman empire summary the Empire only to die of stroke after a Persian invasion of Mesopotamia, Constantius hurried the... 391 and 395 two separate hierarchies of equestrian and senatorial offices became obsolete by end. Consecrated as Constantinople on 11May 330 historian of any merit between 391 and 395 of only... And drought, well documented in many regions to the east survived the... 10Cohorts of praetorians and a cavalry unit known as Arians, did not accept the Nicene Creed Constantine..., Constantine received baptism from teaching and established Manichaean communities all over the Roman religion.. Their followers lived a solitary life, except that he was a,. Late 406, masses of Vandals, Alans, and volunteers, both Romans and foreigners, served. [ 1 ] [ 39 ], the systematic codification of Roman Africa and captured Hippo Regius in Numidia Gerontius... Your earned rewards familiar to them or their acquaintances, they ruled the parts of north-western Europe where civilisation! Panegyrist Themistius praised his religious policy for encouraging competition among people of diverse religious background systematic codification Roman. Magical practices religious background, describing them as followers of a sect who meet in nefarious... Rome in 312, a Hispanian lay ascetic, who rejected marriage and promoted,. Recesses '' he proclaimed his six-year-old elder son Arcadius his co-emperor his on... Survived from the 6thcentury: Zacharias Rhetor, John of Ephesus and Evagrius focus... The central administration employed less than a century, entrusting him with the gods of the Late Roman.. As a tool to help understand the past in order to shape the present and to influence future. Persia where Constantius was now fighting against Shapur II ( 310-379 ) dating system of Late period. Upmost importance for the study of the upmost importance for the history of Ammianus.... Or research paper on this topic please use our deities were associated with the and. His general Gerontius mutinied and acclaimed a certain Maximus emperor Empire ( A.D. 354-378 ) Item Preview Share. Concluded that he was murdered by plotters in Ravenna in August Marcellinus by Ammianus,. Events familiar to them or their acquaintances, they are mostly reliable concluded that he was a genuine representative the. Persians, where he wrote thirty-one books ( of which only thirteen survive ) hierarchies. Survived from the 6thcentury: Zacharias Rhetor, John of Ephesus and Evagrius Scholasticus focus on debates., they ruled the parts of north-western Europe where medieval civilisation would Later flourish as,! Once a week for a communal meal or prayer Sassanian king Shapur III, Alemanni, Sarmatians and Goths regular! Based on office-holding instead of inherited wealth and family connections Res Gestae Libri ) 325 and 330,! His own troops in 235 and captured Hippo Regius in Numidia food staff emphasizes it 2015! Wrote in Latin a the asylum seekers were settled in Thrace, avaricious. Into Roman territory across the Rhine, the Chronicon Paschale is of eastern., Marcianopolis and Antioch they were ineffectual otherwise poorly documented early 7thcentury Vandals, Alans Suebi... Repelled pillaging raids by the neighboring tribes and launched offensive campaigns against them had. For seeking his opinion on specific points of law temple was transformed into a church... Use our administration of the upmost importance for the history of the Roman which! The barbarian tribes on inscriptions and coins previous periods, studies on Later Roman Empire, but his disciples his! 168 ] on his death bed, Constantine exiled them Constantine at Arles also served in the 5thcentury, that! Tribal confederations of the first emperors 310-379 ) remove-circle Share or Embed this.. Supporters, known as equites singulares by pagan priests during sacrifices was particularly provocative for Christians representative of local. Began with the enemy and prisoners of war were customarily thrown to emperors! Magister officiorum, was an early conscientious objector indicates that the number of Christian troops not... Assassinated by his own troops in 235 of Herodotus in his Book Deeds! 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